Cabbage, broccoli, kale, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts and kohlrabi are one species, Brassica oleracea. The name cabbage comes from caboche, a word in the Picard dialect of Old French for “head”. The scientific name of the heading type, capitata, is Latin for “having a head”.
A cup of raw chopped cabbage (89 g) has 22 calories. It gives 56% of the Daily Value (the amount on US food labels) for vitamin K.
How you cook it changes what is left. In a lab test on green cabbage and three relatives, about 90% of the glucosinolates lost in boiling ended up in the cooking water. Steaming, microwaving and stir-frying lost no significant amount, although a separate red cabbage test found every method lowered them.
Glucosinolates are sulfur compounds that cabbage’s own enzyme turns into isothiocyanates, the focus of much cancer research. A trial in 12 people found considerably less allyl isothiocyanate excreted after microwaved cabbage than after raw.
Red cabbage doubles as a chemistry set. Its anthocyanin pigment looks red or pink in acid, purple at neutral pH and blue, green or yellow in alkali. So cooked red cabbage turns blue until a splash of vinegar turns it red again.
Some studies below used sauerkraut or kimchi, which are fermented foods made from cabbage. Each is labeled where it appears.
Health benefits of cabbage
The top findings from 28 studies, strongest evidence first
What the stars mean
- Strong. Several randomized trials, pooled in a meta-analysis, point the same way, or regulators (FDA or EFSA) have approved the claim.
- Moderate. Good randomized trials support it, but there are fewer of them, or their results vary.
- Limited. Small, short or single trials, or mixed results. Promising, but it needs confirmation.
Population and lab studies get no stars: they show a link or a mechanism, not proof.
How we rate evidence →- ★★Slightly lower fasting blood sugar from kimchiAcross 5 trials (205 people), kimchi lowered fasting blood sugar by about 1.9 mg/dL, a drop that only just ruled out zero. After dropping inconsistent studies, triglycerides fell 28.9 mg/dL and blood pressure fell 3.5 and 2.7 mm Hg.
- ★Fewer irritable bowel symptomsIn 90 people with irritable bowel syndrome, 210 g of kimchi a day for 12 weeks eased pain and bloating, with no group without kimchi. In 34 patients, sauerkraut lowered symptom scores, pasteurized or not (by 38.6 and 57.0 points in the two groups).
- ★Lower weight and BMI in small kimchi trialsIn 22 overweight adults, fresh and fermented kimchi for 4 weeks each both lowered weight and BMI, with no phase without kimchi. In 21 people with prediabetes, glucose tolerance improved in 33% on fermented kimchi and 9.5% on fresh.
- ★Small blood pressure drop from sauerkrautIn 87 healthy adults, 100 g of sauerkraut a day for 4 weeks gave only a small drop in systolic pressure (the top number). The authors found no appreciable health benefit in healthy people.
- ★Less knee pain from skin cabbage wrapsLeaves were applied to the skin, not eaten, in 81 people with knee osteoarthritis for 4 weeks. Pain was 12.1 points lower than with usual care, and 8.6 points lower than with a pain gel, a gap that could be chance.
All 28 studies, strongest evidence first
Kimchi lowered fasting blood sugar about 1.9 mg/dL in 5 trials
Kimchi is a Korean fermented vegetable dish, usually made with napa cabbage. This meta-analysis pooled 5 intervention studies (205 people) of kimchi without added ingredients or bacteria, plus 4 prospective cohorts (42,455 people). After dropping studies that made results inconsistent, triglycerides fell 28.9 mg/dL, and systolic and diastolic pressure fell 3.5 and 2.7 mm Hg. The glucose drop only just ruled out zero, and the authors call for caution because so few studies exist.
210 g kimchi daily lowered fasting blood sugar more than 15 g
This randomized trial housed 100 healthy young volunteers together in a dormitory for 7 days. They ate identical meals except for the amount of kimchi. Fasting glucose, total cholesterol and LDL (“bad”) cholesterol fell in both groups, with larger drops in people who started with higher cholesterol. There was no group without kimchi, and it lasted one week.
210 g kimchi daily eased irritable bowel symptoms, including pain and bloating
This double-blind trial included 90 people with irritable bowel syndrome, 30 per group, for 12 weeks. They ate standard kimchi, kimchi with added dead bacteria, or a functional kimchi. Stool habits and the inflammation marker TNF-alpha also improved in all three groups. The abstract describes no group without kimchi, so it cannot separate kimchi from the passage of time.
100 g sauerkraut daily gave only a small drop in systolic pressure
This randomized crossover trial had 87 healthy adults eat fresh and pasteurized sauerkraut, each for 4 weeks, with 4-week breaks. Pressure fell with both, so live bacteria were not needed, and gut barrier markers did not change. Changes in inflammation and blood sugar markers were modest and showed up only in some subgroups. The authors found no appreciable health benefit in healthy people.
Daily sauerkraut changed only single bacterial species in healthy guts
This analysis of the same crossover trial (87 people) read gut bacteria with whole-genome sequencing. Changes were bigger with pasteurized than with fresh sauerkraut, and only pasteurized sauerkraut raised blood short-chain fatty acids. The microbiome stayed largely stable, and the authors call it resilient to short-term diet changes in healthy people.
Cabbage wraps beat usual care for knee pain, not gel
Leaves are applied to the skin here, not eaten. This randomized trial followed 81 people with knee osteoarthritis for 4 weeks. They wore wraps for at least 2 hours a day, used diclofenac gel (a pain-relief gel), or had usual care. Pain was clearly lower than with usual care (12.1 points), and 8.6 points lower than with the gel, a gap that could be chance.
100 g kimchi daily did not change immune markers in students
This randomized open-label trial (everyone knew what they ate) included 43 healthy Chinese college students, and 39 finished. For 4 weeks they ate kimchi or 100 g of radish. Lymphocyte subsets, cytokines and immunoglobulins, all immune markers, did not differ. Some authors work at the World Institute of Kimchi.
Sauerkraut, pasteurized or not, lowered irritable bowel symptom scores
This double-blind pilot trial gave 34 Norwegian patients lacto-fermented sauerkraut for 6 weeks, on top of their usual diet. In all, 15 ate pasteurized and 19 unpasteurized sauerkraut. The symptom score fell 38.6 and 57.0 points; the difference between groups could be chance, and gut bacteria shifted. The authors call the study underpowered (too small to be sure), and it had no group without sauerkraut.
Fermented kimchi lowered weight, BMI and body fat in overweight adults
This crossover trial had 22 overweight or obese people eat fresh and fermented kimchi in two 4-week phases, with a 2-week break. Both lowered weight and BMI, while only the fermented kimchi lowered waist-hip ratio and fasting glucose. Fermented kimchi did more for blood pressure and glucose than fresh kimchi. The trial was small, with no phase without kimchi.
Fermented kimchi improved glucose tolerance in 33%, fresh kimchi in 9.5%
This crossover trial had 21 people with prediabetes eat fresh (1-day-old) or fermented (10-day-old) kimchi for 8 weeks each. There was a 4-week break between. Both types lowered weight, BMI and waist size, but only fermented kimchi lowered insulin resistance and blood pressure. Same research group as the 2011 trial above.
People absorbed over 10% more anthocyanins from fresh red cabbage than fermented
This randomized crossover study had 13 volunteers eat fresh and fermented red cabbage. Blood antioxidant capacity was also higher after the fresh cabbage. Only 13 people took part, and it measured absorption, not health outcomes.
After microwaved cabbage, people excreted considerably less allyl isothiocyanate, and later
This crossover trial had 12 healthy volunteers eat raw cabbage, microwaved cabbage and mustard at 48-hour intervals, comparing excretion with raw. Mustard, which holds the compound ready-made, gave the fastest and largest excretion. The delay after cooked cabbage suggests gut bacteria did the work. It measured a urine marker, not health.
Only 0.02 to 0.18% of red cabbage anthocyanins appeared intact in urine
This crossover study had 12 volunteers eat 100, 200 and 300 g of steamed red cabbage. Recovery of intact anthocyanins fell as the dose rose, and the body also made methylated and glucuronidated breakdown products. Absorption of the plain (nonacylated) types was over 4 times that of the acylated types.
Cold cabbage leaves may ease breast pain about 1 point of 10
Leaves are applied to the skin here, not eaten. This Cochrane review covered 21 trials (2,170 women) of treatments for breast engorgement, overfull and painful breasts. Pain was compared with routine care; cold leaves also eased hardness, and more women were satisfied (152 women). But certainty was very low to low, and the authors say no firm conclusions can be drawn.
Brassica vegetables, including cabbage, did not harm human thyroid function
This systematic review of 123 articles covered lab, animal and human studies of Brassica plants and extracts and the thyroid. Most results cast doubt on the idea that they have antithyroid effects in humans. The authors say daily intake, especially with enough iodine, poses no adverse effects. It mixes study types and covers the whole group.
People eating most crucifers had 19% lower gastric cancer risk
This meta-analysis pooled 16 case-control and 6 prospective studies, with 0.81 times the risk overall. Cabbage on its own, part of this cruciferous (cabbage-family) group, gave a similar result. In the prospective studies alone, the link was borderline. Case-control studies, which compare people with and without the disease, depend on people remembering past diet.
People eating most crucifers had 18% lower colorectal cancer risk
This meta-analysis pooled 24 case-control and 11 prospective studies, with 0.82 times the risk overall. Cabbage on its own gave a similar result. In the prospective studies alone, the link was borderline. The same team also wrote the gastric cancer analysis above.
Teen cabbage and sauerkraut went with 64% lower breast cancer odds
This case-control study compared 131 Polish-born women in the US who had breast cancer with 284 controls. The lower odds were for cabbage or sauerkraut over 4 times a week as teens; adult intake gave 50% lower odds, possibly chance. Raw or short-cooked cabbage gave 65% lower odds in the teen years and 63% in adulthood. Diet came from questionnaires, including recall of age 12 to 13.
Lettuce and crucifers drove the vegetable link to lower liver cancer
This cohort followed 485,403 older Americans for a median 15.5 years, with 947 liver cancers. The most vegetables went with a 28% lower risk of liver cancer (0.72 times the risk). Cruciferous vegetables, a group with cabbage, also went with lower chronic liver disease deaths. The abstract gives no figure for cabbage alone.
70% of older case-control studies of cabbage found lower cancer risk
This review covered 7 cohort and 87 case-control studies of Brassica vegetables. Cohorts linked cabbage, cauliflower and broccoli to lower lung cancer risk. The authors say bias may have distorted the results. They cannot tell whether Brassicas or vegetables in general explain the link.
High kimchi intake was not linked to more high blood pressure
This cohort followed 5,932 Korean adults for 12 years, and 1,798 developed hypertension (high blood pressure). Total kimchi intake showed no link, but a trend for more watery kimchi appeared in obese men. Kimchi is salty, which is why the question was asked.
Pickled vegetables went with 28% higher gastric cancer risk; fresh, 38% lower
This meta-analysis of Japanese and Korean studies included 8 studies of fresh vegetables and 14 of pickled vegetables. It covers pickled vegetables of many kinds, not cabbage alone. The authors suggest total vegetable intake hides the difference.
People eating most pickled vegetables had about 50% higher gastric cancer risk
This meta-analysis pooled 60 studies (50 case-control, 10 prospective), with 1.52 times the odds overall and 1.32 in the cohorts. The link was mostly in Korean studies (1.89) and Chinese studies (1.86); studies from other countries showed 1.14, which could be chance. It covers pickled vegetables and foods of many kinds, not cabbage alone. Results varied a lot between studies (high heterogeneity).
Boiling washed glucosinolates into the water; steaming, microwaving, stir-frying did not
This lab test used broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower and green cabbage. About 90% of the loss from boiling was found in the water, while steaming, microwaving and stir-frying lost no significant amount. Storing for 7 days lost only 9 to 26%, but finely shredded vegetables lost up to 75% within 6 hours. This is lab chemistry, not a study in people.
Steaming red cabbage kept more vitamin C than boiling or stir-frying
This lab test compared steaming, microwaving, boiling and stir-frying against fresh-cut red cabbage. Every method lowered anthocyanins and glucosinolates. Stir-frying and boiling also lost total phenolics and antioxidant activity. The authors say red cabbage eaten fresh in salads kept the most nutrition.
Rats fed fully cooked cabbage excreted almost no allyl isothiocyanate conjugate
Study in rats, not people. Germ-free rats and rats given human gut bacteria ate a diet with 20% raw, lightly cooked or fully cooked cabbage for 14 days. Gut bacteria raised excretion 1.4 times after raw and 2.5 times after lightly cooked cabbage. Cooking destroyed the plant enzyme that makes the compound.
Red cabbage microgreens lowered LDL cholesterol in mice on high-fat diets
This was a study in mice, not people. For 8 weeks, 60 male mice ate low-fat or high-fat diets with or without 1.09% red cabbage microgreens or 1.66% mature red cabbage. The microgreens, young seedlings, also lowered liver fat and cytokines (inflammation signals) and slowed weight gain. The abstract reports results for the microgreens only.
Red cabbage juice improved survival and the gut lining in colitis mice
This was a study in mice, not people. Mice with chemically induced colitis (gut inflammation) were given red cabbage juice or saline by tube each day. The juice shifted gut bacteria toward short-chain fatty acid producers and lowered inflammatory signals. Whether it helps people with colitis is unknown.
Who should be careful with cabbage
Most people can eat cabbage freely. Take a little care if one of these applies:
- Warfarin. Cabbage contains vitamin K (76 µg per 100 g), which can change how this blood thinner works. A hospital leaflet lists it among the foods to eat in a consistent amount. You do not need to avoid it; keep the portion steady and check with your clinic before big changes.
- Irritable bowel syndrome or a gassy gut. Monash University tested common cabbage as low in FODMAPs (carbs that can trigger gut symptoms) at 1 cup. Red cabbage was low at ½ cup (75 g), with fructans moderate above 150 g. Sauerkraut was high in the sugar alcohol mannitol at 1 cup, so keep fermented portions small.
- Sauerkraut and MAOI antidepressants. A lab analysis found 7.75 mg of tyramine in a 250 g serving of sauerkraut. The authors called this level dangerously high for people on these drugs. Ask your prescriber before eating it.
How to choose, store and eat cabbage
- Raw: a trial in 12 people found considerably less allyl isothiocyanate after microwaved cabbage than after raw, so raw slaw gives the most. Shred it just before eating, since finely shredded Brassica vegetables lost up to 75% of their glucosinolates within 6 hours.
- Steamed, microwaved or stir-fried: none lost a significant amount of glucosinolates in a lab test on green cabbage and relatives. A red cabbage test found every method lowered them, though. Steaming kept more vitamin C in red cabbage than boiling or stir-frying.
- Boiled: about 90% of the glucosinolates lost came out in the cooking water, so keep the liquid, as in soup, or use a different method.
Choose firm heads with glossy leaves and a healthy, trimmed stem end. Keep a whole head unwashed in a plastic bag in the fridge for up to one week, and use cut cabbage within two days.
Sources
- Dietary advice for patients taking warfarin. Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust.
- Fermented foods and FODMAPs. Monash FODMAP blog. 2017.
- FODMAP stacking: can I overeat green? Monash FODMAP blog. 2016.
- Walker SE, Shulman KI, Tailor SA, Gardner D. Tyramine content of previously restricted foods in monoamine oxidase inhibitor diets. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1996.
- Rouzaud G, Young SA, Duncan AJ. Hydrolysis of glucosinolates to isothiocyanates after ingestion of raw or microwaved cabbage by human volunteers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2004.
- Song L, Thornalley PJ. Effect of storage, processing and cooking on glucosinolate content of Brassica vegetables. Food Chem Toxicol. 2007.
- Xu F, Zheng Y, Yang Z, et al. Domestic cooking methods affect the nutritional quality of red cabbage. Food Chem. 2014.
- Cabbage. University of Nebraska–Lincoln Extension.
History of cabbage
Where cabbage began is still debated. Wikipedia’s summary says it was most likely domesticated somewhere in Europe before 1000 BC, with non-heading cabbages and kale probably first.
A 2021 genetic study of 224 plants points elsewhere. It names the Aegean wild relative Brassica cretica as the closest living cousin of the whole species. It places the origin of cultivation in the eastern Mediterranean.
The Romans loved it. In the 2nd century BC, Cato the Elder wrote that cabbage “surpasses all other vegetables”. He said it can be eaten cooked or raw, the raw leaves dipped in vinegar. Pliny the Elder later listed seven kinds, and Cato and Columella described preserving cabbage with salt.
In the Middle Ages it fed the poor. In 1420 the Bourgeois of Paris wrote that poor people ate nothing but cabbages and turnips when bread ran short. The Zelný trh cabbage market in Brno, now in the Czech Republic, has run since 1325.
Jean Ruel’s 1536 plant book is considered the first explicit mention of head cabbage. German gardeners developed savoy cabbage in the 16th century.
It then traveled the world. Jacques Cartier brought cabbage to the Americas in 1541 and 1542, and the First Fleet carried seeds to Australia in 1788. As late as 1775, Carl Peter Thunberg reported that cabbage was not yet known in Japan.
Sailors packed it for scurvy. Dutch, Scandinavian and German sailors used sauerkraut, which keeps for months, and Captain Cook took it on his voyages.
Cabbage is also big business. Wikipedia, citing FAO data, puts world production at about 74 million tonnes in 2023, with China growing about 48% of it.
Sources
- Mabry ME, Turner-Hissong SD, Gallagher EY, et al. The evolutionary history of wild, domesticated, and feral Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae). Mol Biol Evol. 2021.
- Cabbage. Wikipedia.
- On Agriculture (De agri cultura), chapter 156. Cato the Elder. Loeb Classical Library edition, 1934, on LacusCurtius.
- Sauerkraut. Wikipedia.
- Red cabbage. Wikipedia.
- Kimchi. Wikipedia.
- Saloheimo P. Captain Cook used sauerkraut to prevent scurvy. Duodecim. 2005.
Frequently asked questions about cabbage
Is cabbage good for you?
For most people, yes. Per 100 g, raw cabbage has about 25 calories and 2.5 g of fiber. It also has 36.6 mg of vitamin C (41% of the Daily Value) and 76 µg of vitamin K (63%).
In reviews of observational studies, the most cruciferous vegetables went with 19% lower gastric cancer risk and 18% lower colorectal cancer risk. Cabbage on its own gave similar results. Those are links, not proof, and no cabbage finding here reaches strong evidence.
Is red cabbage healthier than green cabbage?
No study here compares them. Red cabbage gets its color from anthocyanins. But in 12 volunteers, only 0.02 to 0.18% of them showed up intact in urine after steamed red cabbage.
Both are the same species, and Monash University tested red cabbage as low in FODMAPs at ½ cup (75 g). Eat the one you like and will eat more of.
Is raw or cooked cabbage healthier?
Neither is simply better. People excreted considerably less allyl isothiocyanate after microwaved cabbage than after raw. In a lab test on green cabbage and relatives, steaming, microwaving and stir-frying lost no significant glucosinolates. Boiling put about 90% of the loss into the water.
A red cabbage test, though, found every method lowered them, and boiling and stir-frying lost vitamin C. Raw or lightly steamed is the safe middle path.
Does cabbage cause gas?
It can in some people, and no trial here measured gas directly. Monash University tested common cabbage as low in FODMAPs at 1 cup, and red cabbage at ½ cup (75 g). Fructans were moderate above 150 g, and sauerkraut was high in mannitol at 1 cup. If cabbage bothers you, start with a small portion.
Are sauerkraut and kimchi good for you?
They may help a little, but the evidence is thin. A pooled analysis of 5 kimchi trials found fasting blood sugar fell about 1.9 mg/dL. In 87 healthy adults, 100 g of sauerkraut a day for 4 weeks gave only a small blood pressure drop.
Both are salty. Pooled studies of pickled vegetables of many kinds went with about a 50% higher risk of gastric cancer, mostly in Korean and Chinese studies.
Does cabbage affect the thyroid?
Probably not in normal amounts. A review of 123 articles found that Brassica vegetables, the group that includes cabbage, posed no adverse effects on human thyroid function. That held particularly with enough iodine. It mixed lab, animal and human work, so if you have a thyroid condition, ask your doctor about large amounts.
Is cabbage good for weight loss?
No study here tested cabbage for weight loss, and none tested a cabbage soup diet. Raw cabbage has 25 calories and 2.5 g of fiber per 100 g, so it fills a plate cheaply. In 22 overweight adults, fermented kimchi for 4 weeks lowered weight and body fat. But there was no group without kimchi.
Do cabbage leaves help breast engorgement or sore knees?
Possibly a little, but the evidence is weak. In a Cochrane review, cold cabbage leaves eased breast pain by about 1 point on a 10-point scale versus routine care. The evidence was very uncertain. In 81 people with knee osteoarthritis, leaf wraps lowered pain more than usual care but not more than diclofenac gel.