Ground beef is the one beef product where cooking matters most for safety. Grinding mixes any bacteria on the surface of the meat through the whole patty, which is why the USDA sets a thermometer reading of 160°F (71°C) for it. The link between burgers and E. coli O157:H7 was first made in 1982, when two outbreaks in Oregon and Michigan made at least 47 people ill and the bacterium turned up in a beef patty. Between 1982 and 2002, ground beef was the food behind 75 of the 183 foodborne E. coli O157 outbreaks reported to the CDC, or 41%.
Color is a poor guide to doneness. In USDA research, ground beef that was frozen in bulk, thawed, shaped into patties and cooked right away turned brown at unsafe temperatures, while beef cooked to 135°F and rested about four minutes looked the same as beef cooked to 160°F.
The numbers on this page are for raw ground beef that is 80% lean and 20% fat (USDA entry 174036), per 4 oz (113 g). That portion has 287 calories, 19.4 g of protein, 22.6 g of fat and 8.57 g of saturated fat, which is 43% of the daily value. It also has 101% of the daily value of vitamin B12 and 43% of zinc. About 72% of its calories come from fat and 28% from protein. Cooked patties lose water and some fat, so cooked beef is not the same gram for gram.
Health benefits of ground beef
None of the studies below reaches strong evidence, and the red meat question is still argued. The best-supported finding is that in 36 trials red meat did not change LDL cholesterol or blood pressure compared with all other diets combined, though LDL was higher than with plant protein. Large cohorts link red meat to small rises in the risk of colorectal cancer, type 2 diabetes and heart disease, but the NutriRECS panel rated that evidence low certainty, while the World Cancer Research Fund and IARC take the cancer link more seriously. Several beef trials were paid for by the Beef Checkoff or the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, and the funding is stated on each card. Here is what 30 studies found, strongest evidence first, from cholesterol and muscle to cancer, diabetes and food safety, including the trials that found nothing.
In 36 trials, eating red meat did not change LDL cholesterol or blood pressure compared with all other diets combined
Meta-analysis of 36 randomized trials with 1,803 people, covering red meat as a group, not only ground beef. Compared with high-quality plant proteins (legumes, soy, nuts), red meat gave smaller falls in LDL cholesterol (0.198 mmol/L) and total cholesterol (0.264 mmol/L). The authors say the result depends on what replaces the meat: plant proteins came out better, fish and refined carbohydrates did not.
In a 4-week feeding trial, diets high in red meat raised LDL cholesterol more than nonmeat protein diets, about the same as white meat
Randomized trial in healthy adults who ate red meat, white meat and nonmeat protein diets for 4 weeks each, within a high or low saturated fat arm (61 and 52 people finished). The rise came mainly from large LDL particles, while small and medium LDL did not change. The authors say it gives no reason to choose white over red meat to lower heart disease risk.
In randomized trials, diets lower in red meat made little or no difference to deaths, heart disease or cancer
Systematic review of 12 trials lasting 6 months or more. The most credible one, in 48,835 women, found hazard ratios of 0.99 for all-cause death, 0.98 for cardiovascular death and 1.04 for colorectal cancer, none clearly different from no effect. Certainty is low to very low, with few trials and small gaps in meat intake between groups. The authors report no funding.
Five 115 g beef patties a week for 5 weeks lowered LDL cholesterol, even with 24% fat ground beef
Randomized crossover trial in 25 men who ate high-fat (24% fat) or low-fat (5% fat) patties. Both versions lowered LDL and HDL cholesterol and reduced small, dense LDL particles, which went against the authors’ guess for the high-fat beef. The Beef Checkoff Program funded the study.
Show 26 more studies
Adding ground beef with about 25% fat to the diet 5 times a week for 5 weeks improved blood vessel function and lowered blood pressure in men
Double-blind crossover trial in 23 men who added low-fat (about 5% fat) or high-fat (about 25% fat) ground beef to their usual diet. Flow-mediated dilation and blood pressure improved on the high-fat beef compared with entry, and neither version changed pulse wave velocity. The authors suggest lower LDL may explain it. An unrestricted grant from the Beef Checkoff Program to Texas A&M University funded the study.
A low-saturated-fat diet with 113 g of lean beef a day lowered LDL cholesterol by 0.35 mmol/L in people with high cholesterol
Randomized crossover trial in 36 people with raised LDL, who ate each of four diets for 5 weeks. The beef diet (6% of calories from saturated fat) did about as well as a DASH diet with 28 g of beef (0.37 mmol/L), while a typical American diet lowered LDL by 0.14 mmol/L. The Beef Checkoff Program supported the study.
Adding 153 g of lean beef a day to a DASH-style diet lowered systolic blood pressure from 115.7 to 111.4 mm Hg in people with normal pressure
Randomized crossover trial in 36 people, 5 weeks per diet. The version with 113 g of beef did not change systolic pressure significantly but reduced peripheral vascular constriction (augmentation index down 4.1%), and endothelial function did not change. The study was funded by the Beef Checkoff.
Four weeks on a diet high in red meat more than doubled blood TMAO, a gut-made compound tied to artery disease
Randomized crossover trial in 113 volunteers who ate red meat, white meat and nonmeat protein diets for 4 weeks each, with meals prepared in a metabolic kitchen. White meat and nonmeat protein did not raise TMAO, saturated fat did not affect it, and levels fell within 4 weeks of stopping red meat. TMAO is a marker, not a disease outcome.
A 113 g serving of lean beef raised muscle protein synthesis by about 50% in young and older adults, and 340 g added nothing more
Study in 17 young and 17 older adults who ate 113 g (30 g of protein) or 340 g (90 g of protein) of 90% lean beef, with muscle biopsies for 5 hours after the meal. The authors conclude that more than 30 g of protein in one meal does not raise synthesis further. It measured a short-term muscle signal, not strength or muscle size.
A 4 oz ground beef patty raised muscle protein synthesis more than a 4 oz soy-based patty
Randomized trial in healthy adults aged 18 to 40 comparing one 4 oz patty of 80% lean beef with one or two soy-based meat alternative patties. The rise in muscle protein synthesis was 0.020%/h after beef and 0.003%/h after one soy patty, and not clearly different from two soy patties (0.013%/h). The National Cattlemen’s Beef Association paid for the project, and the paper says the sponsor had no role in its design, execution, interpretation or writing.
A meal with 100 g of lean ground beef raised muscle protein synthesis about 47% more than an equal-protein vegan meal in older adults
Randomized crossover trial in 16 adults aged 65 to 85 who ate a whole-food meal with beef or an isocaloric vegan meal with the same nitrogen. Muscle protein synthesis was 0.052%/h after the beef meal and 0.035%/h after the vegan meal, and blood essential amino acids rose more after beef. It measured a short-term muscle signal over 6 hours.
Eating 1.4 g of protein per kg a day with an emphasis on lean beef for 12 weeks did not add to the muscle or strength gains from resistance training in older women
Randomized feeding trial in women with an average age of 66, in three groups: 0.8 g/kg of mixed protein, 1.4 g/kg of mixed protein, or 1.4 g/kg emphasizing unprocessed lean beef, with all food provided and training 3 times a week. Strength and thigh muscle volume rose with training whatever the diet, and tendon changes did not differ clearly. The National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, a contractor to the Beef Checkoff, funded the study in part.
Taking an iron pill with a 4 oz beef lunch did not restore iron better than taking it with plant-based meat
Randomized double-blind trial in 52 women with low iron stores who took a 32 mg iron supplement with 4 oz (113 g) of beef or a plant-based meat once a day for 8 weeks. Ferritin rose by 10.7 µg/L and hemoglobin by 0.5 g/dL in both groups, so the “meat factor” added little. The first author reports funding from the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association for this research.
Ground grass-finished beef, grain-finished beef and a plant-based meat caused similar inflammation markers over the next 5 hours
Randomized crossover trial in 36 middle-aged adults with a body mass index of 25 to 35. CRP, IL-6 and TNF-alpha did not differ significantly between the three meals, and hunger and fullness ratings did not differ either. It tested single meals, and the authors say long-term effects need study.
A guideline panel suggested adults continue eating their current amount of red meat, citing low-certainty evidence
The NutriRECS panel of 14 members from 7 countries, with strict conflict-of-interest limits, based its weak recommendation on 5 new systematic reviews and GRADE ratings. It covers unprocessed red meat and processed meat alike. The paper reports no funding, and other groups such as the World Cancer Research Fund still advise limiting red meat.
Eating 3 fewer servings a week of unprocessed red meat went with a very small drop in risk of heart death, stroke, heart attack and type 2 diabetes
Meta-analysis of 55 cohorts with more than 4 million people. Certainty was low, and the authors point to confounding and recall bias in food questionnaires. For processed meat the very small drop also included all-cause mortality. The authors report no funding.
Eating 3 fewer servings a week of unprocessed red meat went with a very small drop in cancer deaths over a lifetime
Meta-analysis of 56 cohorts with more than 6 million people. Certainty was low for red meat and low to very low for processed meat, where each 3-serving cut went with very small decreases in colorectal, esophageal and breast cancer. The authors name residual confounding as a limit and report no funding.
Each 100 g a day of red and processed meat went with a 12% higher risk of colorectal cancer
Dose-response meta-analysis of about 400 estimates from 111 cohorts, done for the World Cancer Research Fund Continuous Update Project. The 95% range was 4 to 21%, and studies differed a lot. The figure covers fresh red and processed meat together, not ground beef alone, and poultry was not linked to colorectal cancer.
People who ate the most unprocessed red meat had a 10% higher risk of colorectal cancer
Meta-analysis of prospective studies (148 articles) comparing highest with lowest intake. Risk was also higher for colon cancer (17%), rectal cancer, lung cancer (26%), breast cancer and liver cancer. Observational data cannot show that red meat caused these differences.
A meta-analysis found only a weak link between red meat and colorectal cancer that shrank in the cleaner analyses
Meta-analysis of 27 cohorts gave a summary relative risk of 1.11 (95% CI 1.03 to 1.19), with significant heterogeneity. The link was weaker for fresh red meat alone, with more factors adjusted for, in women and outside the US, and no clear dose-response appeared. The paper says it was partially funded by Meat & Livestock Australia.
Unprocessed red meat was not linked to coronary heart disease, but processed meat was linked to a 42% higher risk
Meta-analysis of 20 studies. Per 100 g a day of red meat, the relative risk was 1.00 for heart disease (0.81 to 1.23) and 1.16 for diabetes (0.92 to 1.46), neither significant, while processed meat per 50 g a day went with 19% higher diabetes risk. Only 3 studies looked at stroke.
Each daily serving of unprocessed red meat went with a 12% higher risk of type 2 diabetes in three US cohorts
The Health Professionals Follow-Up Study and Nurses’ Health Studies I and II recorded 13,759 cases. An updated meta-analysis found a 19% higher risk per 100 g of unprocessed red meat a day (relative risk 1.19, range 1.04 to 1.37). Swapping a serving for nuts, low-fat dairy or whole grains went with 16 to 35% lower risk.
Across 31 cohorts, each 100 g a day of unprocessed red meat went with a 10% higher risk of type 2 diabetes
Individual-participant meta-analysis of 31 cohorts in 20 countries with 1.97 million adults (hazard ratio 1.10, range 1.06 to 1.15). Processed meat (15% per 50 g) and poultry (8% per 100 g) also went with higher risk, and the poultry result weakened under other models.
Two more servings a week of unprocessed red meat went with a 3% higher risk of heart disease and of death from any cause
Pooled analysis of 6 US cohorts followed for a median of 19 years. The 30-year absolute risk difference was 0.62% for cardiovascular disease and 0.76% for death. Processed meat and poultry were also linked to heart disease, fish was not, and food questionnaires and confounding limit the result.
Eating 50 g more unprocessed red meat a day went with a 20% lower risk of iron deficiency anemia
UK Biobank study of 474,985 adults followed for about 8 years. Higher unprocessed red and processed meat together went with more ischemic heart disease (hazard ratio 1.15 per 70 g a day), diabetes (1.30) and colon polyps, but most links shrank after adjusting for body mass index, so confounding may explain part.
People with the highest heme iron intake from meat had an 18% higher risk of colon cancer
Meta-analysis of prospective cohorts with 566,607 people and 4,734 colon cancer cases (relative risk 1.18, range 1.06 to 1.32), which the authors call a suggestive link. In rats with chemically induced colon cancer, hemoglobin and red meat promoted early lesions, and the review discusses how heme iron may do this.
Well-done red meat went with a 29% higher risk of colorectal adenomas per 10 g a day, against 10% for rare or medium
Case-control study of 146 people with adenomas, polyps that can turn into cancer, and 228 without, who answered detailed questions about how they cooked meat. Grilled red meat went with a 26% higher risk, and the rare or medium difference was not significant. The authors link this to compounds formed in high-heat cooking.
Ground beef was the food behind 41% of foodborne E. coli O157 outbreaks reported in the US from 1982 to 2002
Review of 350 outbreaks reported to the CDC, with 8,598 cases, 17% hospitalized, 4% with hemolytic uremic syndrome and 0.5% deaths. Of the 183 foodborne outbreaks, 75 traced to ground beef and 38 (21%) to produce. It is outbreak surveillance, so it does not count every case.
Frying ground beef patties longer and hotter produced more mutagenic heterocyclic amines
Lab analysis of ground beef patties fried at 150, 190 and 230°C for 2 to 10 minutes a side. Levels of four heterocyclic amines rose with time and temperature, and the mutagenic activity in a bacterial test matched the amounts measured. This is chemistry in the pan, not a study in people.
Patties cooked to 160°F still tested positive for E. coli O157:H7 in 2 of 9 samples when turned only once on a one-sided grill
Lab test with 100 g patties spiked with E. coli O157:H7. A double-sided grill took 2.7 minutes to reach 71.1°C and cut the bacteria by 6.9 log, while turning once took 10.9 minutes and cut 4.7 log. With lower starting levels, none of the double-sided or every-30-second patties tested positive. The authors advise a two-sided grill or turning every 30 seconds.
Who should be careful with ground beef
Most people can eat ground beef, but how much and how it is cooked both matter. Take a little care if one of these applies:
- Young children, older adults, pregnancy and weak immune systems. Undercooked ground beef is the main risk. The CDC lists children under 5, adults 65 and older and people with weakened immune systems as more likely to have serious illness from Shiga toxin-producing E. coli, which can cause kidney failure. Cook it to 160°F (71°C) and check with a thermometer.
- Tick bites and alpha-gal syndrome. The CDC says a tick bite can trigger an allergy to alpha-gal, a molecule in most mammals, and reactions can follow eating beef, pork or lamb. See an allergist if you react to red meat after tick bites.
- Eating it often. The World Cancer Research Fund advises limiting red meat to about three portions a week, or 350 to 500 g cooked, and IARC rates red meat as probably carcinogenic (Group 2A). The risk is small, and the NutriRECS panel suggested most adults can keep their current intake.
How to choose, store and eat ground beef
- Fat level: the USDA entry on this page is 80% lean, 20% fat, with 8.57 g of saturated fat per 4 oz raw. In 25 men, five 115 g patties a week lowered LDL cholesterol with both 24% fat and 5% fat beef.
- Cooking: use a thermometer and cook to 160°F (71°C). Frying patties longer and hotter produced more mutagenic heterocyclic amines in the lab, and grilled red meat went with a 26% higher risk of colorectal adenomas in one case-control study.
- Grill: in a lab test, patties on a one-sided grill turned once still tested positive for E. coli in 2 of 9 samples at 160°F, while a two-sided grill or turning every 30 seconds did not.
Keep raw ground beef in the refrigerator for 1 to 2 days, or freeze it for 3 to 4 months for best quality. Do not judge doneness by color, because patties can brown before they are safe.
Sources
- About E. coli infection. CDC.
- About alpha-gal syndrome. CDC.
- Limit red and processed meat. World Cancer Research Fund.
- Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat. IARC. 2015.
- Ground beef and food safety. USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service.
- Cooked-to-brown burgers may not tell the truth. USDA Agricultural Research Service. 2001.
- Cold food storage chart. Virginia Department of Health.
- Rangel JM, Sparling PH, Crowe C, Griffin PM, Swerdlow DL. Epidemiology of Escherichia coli O157:H7 outbreaks, United States, 1982-2002. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005.
- Rhee MS, Lee SY, Dougherty RH, Kang DH. Evaluation of consumer-style cooking methods for reduction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in ground beef. J Food Prot. 2003.
- Knize MG, Salmon CP, Pais P, Felton JS. Effect of cooking time and temperature on the heterocyclic amine content of fried beef patties. Food Chem Toxicol. 1994.
- Sinha R, Chow WH, Kulldorff M, et al. Well-done, grilled red meat increases the risk of colorectal adenomas. Cancer Res. 1999.
- Lytle JR, Ferguson Rodriguez J, Crouse SF, et al. Consuming high-fat and low-fat ground beef depresses high-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations, and reduces small, dense low-density lipoprotein particle abundance. Nutrients. 2023.
- Johnston BC, Zeraatkar D, Han MA, et al. Unprocessed red meat and processed meat consumption: dietary guideline recommendations from the Nutritional Recommendations (NutriRECS) Consortium. Ann Intern Med. 2019.
History of ground beef
Cattle came first. Archaeological and genetic data indicate that taurine cattle were first domesticated from wild aurochs in the Near East some 10,500 years ago. DNA from 15 ancient Iranian cattle, together with modern herds, suggests that the founders numbered only around 80 female aurochs.
The name points to Hamburg, but nobody knows which one. Minced “Hamburg steak” appeared in print in The Boston Journal in 1884, and in 1896 the Chicago Daily Tribune described a five-cent “hamburger steak sandwich” cooked on a gasoline range. Wikipedia says it is unknown whether the name came from Hamburg, Germany, or Hamburg, New York.
Many towns claim to have invented the sandwich, from Louis’ Lunch in New Haven, which dates its burger to about 1900, to Tulsa, Oklahoma. Wikipedia says no single inventor has been established and that several people may have thought of it independently. Hamburgers gained national attention at the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair.
Ground beef then had an image problem. White Castle opened in Wichita, Kansas, in 1921 and marketed cleanliness, because writing such as Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle had made ground beef unpopular with families. Richard and Maurice McDonald opened their restaurant in 1940, set out their “Speedee Service System” in 1948, and sold the company to Ray Kroc in 1961.
The next shock was microbial. In 1982, investigators in Oregon and Michigan traced severe, often bloody diarrhea in at least 47 people to a rare bacterium, E. coli O157:H7, that had been isolated only once before, from a single case in 1975. The illness was linked to eating beef patties, and the authors suspected undercooked meat. Undercooked hamburgers contaminated with the same bacterium caused four deaths and hundreds of illnesses in the US in 1993. The USDA now advises cooking ground beef to 160°F (71°C).
Today, US rules allow no more than 30% fat by weight in products sold as ground beef or hamburger. The 80% lean, 20% fat grind on this page sits inside that limit.
Sources
- Bollongino R, Burger J, Powell A, Mashkour M, Vigne JD, Thomas MG. Modern taurine cattle descended from small number of near-eastern founders. Mol Biol Evol. 2012.
- Riley LW, Remis RS, Helgerson SD, et al. Hemorrhagic colitis associated with a rare Escherichia coli serotype. N Engl J Med. 1983.
- Rangel JM, Sparling PH, Crowe C, Griffin PM, Swerdlow DL. Epidemiology of Escherichia coli O157:H7 outbreaks, United States, 1982-2002. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005.
- Hamburger. Wikipedia.
- Ground beef. Wikipedia.
Frequently asked questions about ground beef
Is ground beef good for you?
It depends on how much and how often, and the evidence is argued. A 4 oz (113 g) portion of raw 80% lean ground beef has 19.4 g of protein, 101% of the daily value of vitamin B12 and 43% of zinc, but also 8.57 g of saturated fat (43% of the daily value). Cohorts link red meat to small rises in risk, while the NutriRECS panel rated that evidence low certainty and suggested adults continue their current intake.
Is ground beef bad for your heart or cholesterol?
In trials, not clearly. In 36 trials red meat did not change LDL cholesterol compared with all other diets combined, but LDL was higher than with plant protein. In 25 men, five 115 g patties a week lowered LDL with both 24% fat and 5% fat beef, though the Beef Checkoff paid for that trial. In cohorts, two more servings a week of unprocessed red meat went with a 3% higher risk of heart disease.
Does ground beef cause cancer?
Plain ground beef is red meat, which IARC rates as probably carcinogenic (Group 2A) and the World Cancer Research Fund calls a probable cause of colorectal cancer. The rating describes how strong the evidence is, not how big the risk is. People who ate the most red meat had a 10% higher colorectal cancer risk in a large meta-analysis, while NutriRECS found only very small effects and low-certainty evidence.
How much ground beef can you eat?
The World Cancer Research Fund advises limiting red meat to about three portions a week, or 350 to 500 g cooked, while the NutriRECS panel suggested continuing current intake. No trial here tests one best amount. For muscle, a 113 g serving of lean beef raised muscle protein synthesis by about 50%, and 340 g added nothing more.
Is it safe to eat ground beef that is pink inside?
Only if a thermometer reads 160°F (71°C) in the center, because color is not reliable. USDA researchers found patties that turned brown at unsafe temperatures. In a lab test, patties cooked to 71.1°C on a one-sided grill turned once still tested positive for E. coli in 2 of 9 samples, while a two-sided grill or turning every 30 seconds did not.
How much protein is in ground beef?
A 4 oz (113 g) portion of raw 80% lean ground beef has 19.4 g of protein, or 17.2 g per 100 g. Protein gives about 28% of its calories and fat about 72%, and its protein score is 72 out of 100, limited by tryptophan. A 4 oz beef patty raised muscle protein synthesis more than a 4 oz soy-based patty.
Is ground beef high in iron and vitamin B12?
It is rich in B12 and has some iron. A raw 4 oz portion has 2.4 µg of B12 (101% of the daily value) and 2.19 mg of iron (12% of the daily value), and the USDA entry does not split heme from other iron. In UK Biobank, 50 g more unprocessed red meat a day went with a 20% lower risk of iron deficiency anemia, but in 52 women with low iron, beef did not restore iron better than plant-based meat.
Is lean ground beef better than 80/20?
Leaner beef has fewer calories and less saturated fat, but the trials here found surprisingly little difference in blood fats. Our page covers raw 80/20: 287 calories, 22.6 g of fat and 8.57 g of saturated fat per 4 oz. In 25 men, both 24% fat and 5% fat patties lowered LDL, and in 23 men the 25% fat beef improved blood vessel function, both in Beef Checkoff-funded trials.